RESEARCH APTITUDE NOTES
RESEARCH APTITUDE
Research is the lifeblood of any institute of higher learning worth its name. It is a
habit of questioning what you do and a systematic examination of the observed information
to find answers. Research is more than a set of specific skills; it is a way of thinking; it
examines critically the various aspects of any professional work.
(1) The term research comprises of two words, namely ‘re’ and’ search’. Generally, re
means again and search means to find out. According to Advanced Larner’s Dictionary.
‘Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially to search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge’. According to Creswell. ‘Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our understandings of a topic or issue’.
(i) is a process of enquiry and investigation, (ii) is systematic and methodical, and (iii)
increases the knowledge
Research Objectives
Research adds to the existing stock of knowledge, making for its advancement. It is the
pursuit of knowledge with the help of study, observation, comparison, and experiment. The
main purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The purpose of research is to find out the truth that is hidden and not
discovered so far.
The typical objectives of research can be summarized as follows:
1. Gain familiarity with a new phenomenon or develop new insight into a phenomenon.
2. Review and synthesize the existing knowledge.
3. Investigate some existing situation or problem.
4. Offer solution to a problem.
5. Explore and analyze more general issues.
6. Construct or create a new procedure or system.
7. Generate new knowledge.
Some important terms
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the origin, nature, methods to acquire
knowledge, validity, and limits of human knowledge.
Positivist paradigm is mostly associated with quantitative research strategies.
Interpretive paradigm is usually associated with qualitative research strategies. It is
specifically applicable in social sciences like sociology, political science, etc.
Theory A theory is a set of systematically related statements, including some law-like
generalizations that can be tested empirically. These generalization provide hypotheses and
these hypotheses determine what must be measured.
Construct Construct is popularly termed as the concept. A construct is an abstract entity, that
is, it is not something physical.
Research characteristics
Objectivity: It is crucial for a successful research. We should rather say that all other
characteristics are built around it. Researchers usually take utmost precautions that results are
not affected by their own presence, behaviour, and attitude.
Reliability in context of research is consistency. It refers to the extent to which an
investigation produces consistent results. Reliability means that whatever you conclude on
the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by the researcher and also by others.
Validity: Validity in research mainly stands for accuracy of procedures, research
instruments, tests etc.
Validity is defined as the extent to which a measuring device measures what it intends
or purports to measure.
Validity means that research must be unbiased and fee from any systematic error as
these may impact the applicability of research.
Accuracy: It is closely related to validity. It is also the degree to which research processes
instruments, and tools are related to each other.
Credibility: It is the use of best source of information and the best procedures in the
research. Most of the times, it will become a questions of excessive reliance on secondary
data when the option of primary data is available.
Generalizability: It is closely related to validity. It refers to the degree to which research
findings can be applied to a larger population.
Empirical research: It is based on real-life experiences, direct experiences or observation
by the researcher.
Systematic: For a research to be effective, it has to be systematic. It is the only approach to
undertake any research work, and each step must follow the other.
Cyclical: Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
Logical: The statement, a good research is logical, implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning. Logical processes of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out the research.
S.No. Basis of classification Types
1. Objectives
1. Descrive
2. Correlational
3. Explanatory
4. Explaratory
2. Outcome 1. Basic
2. Applied
3. Logic 1. Deductive
Inductive
4. Process 1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
5. Inquiry mode 1. Structured
2. Unstructured
6. Idea or concept 1. Conceptual
2. Empirical
Classification of Research on the Basis of Objectives
1. Descriptive research
2. Correlational research
3. Explanatory research
4. Experimental research
Descriptive Research
1. It is description of a ;situation as it exists atpresent.
2. It includes surveys and fact-finding enquires with adequate interpretation.
3. It just involves data gathering.
4. A researcher no control over the variables.
5. It attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, or phenomenon.
6. It can provide information about, say for example, living condition of a community, or it
can describe the attitudes towards an issue.
7. It can be further cross-sectional or longitudinal. The cross-sectional study can be field
study or field survey at a point of time, and in longitudinal research, the data may be
collected at more than one point of time.
Examples: 1. Ministry of Agriculture would like to know about the crop patterns across
different states in India. 2. School principal may be interested to know about the result of his
own school in comparison to other schools in the district.
Ex post facto research
1. It is mostly used in social sciences and business.
2. It is conducted in context of a phenomenon after it has occurred or at the time of its
occurrence.
3. It basically deals with non-manipulated variables of a phenomenon.
Historical research
1. It is another dimension of description research and somewhat similar to ex post facto
research.
2. It usually focuses on the historical aspect of an issue of interest or problem.
3. Examples are growth of trade unions in India, evolution of modern education system in
India, etc.
Analytical research
1. In this method, the researcher uses facts or information already available.
2. It attempts to make critical evaluation of the material.
In field study, the depth of the study is greater and the sample size is usually small,
whereas in field survey, there is greater coverage of population but the depth of study
may not be great.
Correlational studies
1. It is undertaken to discover or establish relationship or interdependence between two
aspects of a situation.
2. It may identify factors leading to a certain situation.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research attempts to answer how and why between two aspects of a
situation or a phenomenon.
Exploratory Research
1. It is generally done on starting a research. It is undertaken to explore an area where
little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research
study and is akin to feasibility study or pilot study.
2. Purpose of exploratory research is to gain background information, to define terms, to
clarify the problems, to develop hypotheses, to establish research priorities and
objectives, and to develop questions to be answered.
3. It mostly makes use of secondary data (mainly literature review), experience sur-
verys, case studies, interviews (mainly focus groups’ interviews), projective
techniques, and Delphi techniques.
Experimental Research or Causal Studies
1. It is cause-and-effect finding research; it seeks to uncover cause-and-effect
relationships.
Classification of Research on the Basis of Application
Pure(or Basic)Research
1. The main purpose of basic research is to add to the existing stock of
knowledge and, thus, can be intellectually challenging.
2. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add
to the existing body of research methods.
Applied Research
1. Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions facing the organizations
or society.
2. It can be used for policy formulation, administration, and understanding of a
phenomenon
3. It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive.
4. It is always done on the basis of basic research and can be carried out by academic or
industrial institutions. For example, an academic institution such as a university will
have specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in
that program.
Classification of Research on the Basis of Logic
In research, conclusions are based on two methods known as the deduction method
and the induction method. Both are widely used in research projects, and this helps the
researchers to understand, explain, or predict business phenomena. Deduction follows an
approach which is top-down or from general to specific. On the other hand, induction is
bottom-up in nature or from specific to general.
Deductive Approach
In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of available
information. The deductive method involves the following three steps:
1. State the hypotheses (based on theory or research literature).
2. Collect data to test the hypotheses.
3. Make decision to accept or reject the hypotheses.
Examples
1. All men are mortal (general fact and not specific to just one man)
2. Socrates is a man.
3. (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal(specific).
Inductive Approach
In inductive research, we more from specific to general. This approach also involves
three steps:
1. Observe the different phenomena in the world.
2. Make a search for a pattern in what is observed.
3. Make a generalization about what is occurring.
Examples
1. This ice is cold (as this observation is based on a direct observation, it is specific).
2. All ice is cold (general and can be applied to any ice).
Classification of Research on the Basis of Inquiry Mode
Structured Approach
1. The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
2. Everything that forms the research process, such as objectives, design, sample, and
the questions that a researcher plans to ask of respondents, is predetermined.
Unstructured Approach
1. The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
2. It allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
Quantitative Research
It is similar to deductive research. It is also termed as linear research as it typically follows a
linear path.
1. Stating with testable hypotheses
2. Collection of data
3. Analyzing the data
4. Accepting or rejecting the hypotheses.
Qualitative Research
This is basically an approach and not just a method to conduct research.
Wright describes qualitative research to mean any research were number counting and
statistical techniques are not the central issues, where an attempt is made to get close to the
collection of data in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is basically inductive or spiral in nature and has a very different
structure. The nature and has a very different structure. The researcher starts with a tentative
idea or question; these questions become more specific with progress in research.
The important methods for data collection in qualitative research are as follows:
In this method, a researcher brings together a small number of subjects to discuss the
topic of interest. The group size is kept deliberately small so that the members express
themselves more openly and also get more time as well.
Direct observation:
In-depth interviews: It is unstructured and has face-to-face interviews.
Diary method
Role play and simulation
Case study
Approaches in qualitative research
1. Narrative research
2. Ethnography.
Research is the lifeblood of any institute of higher learning worth its name. It is a
habit of questioning what you do and a systematic examination of the observed information
to find answers. Research is more than a set of specific skills; it is a way of thinking; it
examines critically the various aspects of any professional work.
(1) The term research comprises of two words, namely ‘re’ and’ search’. Generally, re
means again and search means to find out. According to Advanced Larner’s Dictionary.
‘Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially to search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge’. According to Creswell. ‘Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our understandings of a topic or issue’.
(i) is a process of enquiry and investigation, (ii) is systematic and methodical, and (iii)
increases the knowledge
Research Objectives
Research adds to the existing stock of knowledge, making for its advancement. It is the
pursuit of knowledge with the help of study, observation, comparison, and experiment. The
main purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The purpose of research is to find out the truth that is hidden and not
discovered so far.
The typical objectives of research can be summarized as follows:
1. Gain familiarity with a new phenomenon or develop new insight into a phenomenon.
2. Review and synthesize the existing knowledge.
3. Investigate some existing situation or problem.
4. Offer solution to a problem.
5. Explore and analyze more general issues.
6. Construct or create a new procedure or system.
7. Generate new knowledge.
Some important terms
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the origin, nature, methods to acquire
knowledge, validity, and limits of human knowledge.
Positivist paradigm is mostly associated with quantitative research strategies.
Interpretive paradigm is usually associated with qualitative research strategies. It is
specifically applicable in social sciences like sociology, political science, etc.
Theory A theory is a set of systematically related statements, including some law-like
generalizations that can be tested empirically. These generalization provide hypotheses and
these hypotheses determine what must be measured.
Construct Construct is popularly termed as the concept. A construct is an abstract entity, that
is, it is not something physical.
Research characteristics
Objectivity: It is crucial for a successful research. We should rather say that all other
characteristics are built around it. Researchers usually take utmost precautions that results are
not affected by their own presence, behaviour, and attitude.
Reliability in context of research is consistency. It refers to the extent to which an
investigation produces consistent results. Reliability means that whatever you conclude on
the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by the researcher and also by others.
Validity: Validity in research mainly stands for accuracy of procedures, research
instruments, tests etc.
Validity is defined as the extent to which a measuring device measures what it intends
or purports to measure.
Validity means that research must be unbiased and fee from any systematic error as
these may impact the applicability of research.
Accuracy: It is closely related to validity. It is also the degree to which research processes
instruments, and tools are related to each other.
Credibility: It is the use of best source of information and the best procedures in the
research. Most of the times, it will become a questions of excessive reliance on secondary
data when the option of primary data is available.
Generalizability: It is closely related to validity. It refers to the degree to which research
findings can be applied to a larger population.
Empirical research: It is based on real-life experiences, direct experiences or observation
by the researcher.
Systematic: For a research to be effective, it has to be systematic. It is the only approach to
undertake any research work, and each step must follow the other.
Cyclical: Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
Logical: The statement, a good research is logical, implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning. Logical processes of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out the research.
S.No. Basis of classification Types
1. Objectives
1. Descrive
2. Correlational
3. Explanatory
4. Explaratory
2. Outcome 1. Basic
2. Applied
3. Logic 1. Deductive
Inductive
4. Process 1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
5. Inquiry mode 1. Structured
2. Unstructured
6. Idea or concept 1. Conceptual
2. Empirical
Classification of Research on the Basis of Objectives
1. Descriptive research
2. Correlational research
3. Explanatory research
4. Experimental research
Descriptive Research
1. It is description of a ;situation as it exists atpresent.
2. It includes surveys and fact-finding enquires with adequate interpretation.
3. It just involves data gathering.
4. A researcher no control over the variables.
5. It attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, or phenomenon.
6. It can provide information about, say for example, living condition of a community, or it
can describe the attitudes towards an issue.
7. It can be further cross-sectional or longitudinal. The cross-sectional study can be field
study or field survey at a point of time, and in longitudinal research, the data may be
collected at more than one point of time.
Examples: 1. Ministry of Agriculture would like to know about the crop patterns across
different states in India. 2. School principal may be interested to know about the result of his
own school in comparison to other schools in the district.
Ex post facto research
1. It is mostly used in social sciences and business.
2. It is conducted in context of a phenomenon after it has occurred or at the time of its
occurrence.
3. It basically deals with non-manipulated variables of a phenomenon.
Historical research
1. It is another dimension of description research and somewhat similar to ex post facto
research.
2. It usually focuses on the historical aspect of an issue of interest or problem.
3. Examples are growth of trade unions in India, evolution of modern education system in
India, etc.
Analytical research
1. In this method, the researcher uses facts or information already available.
2. It attempts to make critical evaluation of the material.
In field study, the depth of the study is greater and the sample size is usually small,
whereas in field survey, there is greater coverage of population but the depth of study
may not be great.
Correlational studies
1. It is undertaken to discover or establish relationship or interdependence between two
aspects of a situation.
2. It may identify factors leading to a certain situation.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research attempts to answer how and why between two aspects of a
situation or a phenomenon.
Exploratory Research
1. It is generally done on starting a research. It is undertaken to explore an area where
little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research
study and is akin to feasibility study or pilot study.
2. Purpose of exploratory research is to gain background information, to define terms, to
clarify the problems, to develop hypotheses, to establish research priorities and
objectives, and to develop questions to be answered.
3. It mostly makes use of secondary data (mainly literature review), experience sur-
verys, case studies, interviews (mainly focus groups’ interviews), projective
techniques, and Delphi techniques.
Experimental Research or Causal Studies
1. It is cause-and-effect finding research; it seeks to uncover cause-and-effect
relationships.
Classification of Research on the Basis of Application
Pure(or Basic)Research
1. The main purpose of basic research is to add to the existing stock of
knowledge and, thus, can be intellectually challenging.
2. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add
to the existing body of research methods.
Applied Research
1. Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions facing the organizations
or society.
2. It can be used for policy formulation, administration, and understanding of a
phenomenon
3. It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive.
4. It is always done on the basis of basic research and can be carried out by academic or
industrial institutions. For example, an academic institution such as a university will
have specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in
that program.
Classification of Research on the Basis of Logic
In research, conclusions are based on two methods known as the deduction method
and the induction method. Both are widely used in research projects, and this helps the
researchers to understand, explain, or predict business phenomena. Deduction follows an
approach which is top-down or from general to specific. On the other hand, induction is
bottom-up in nature or from specific to general.
Deductive Approach
In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of available
information. The deductive method involves the following three steps:
1. State the hypotheses (based on theory or research literature).
2. Collect data to test the hypotheses.
3. Make decision to accept or reject the hypotheses.
Examples
1. All men are mortal (general fact and not specific to just one man)
2. Socrates is a man.
3. (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal(specific).
Inductive Approach
In inductive research, we more from specific to general. This approach also involves
three steps:
1. Observe the different phenomena in the world.
2. Make a search for a pattern in what is observed.
3. Make a generalization about what is occurring.
Examples
1. This ice is cold (as this observation is based on a direct observation, it is specific).
2. All ice is cold (general and can be applied to any ice).
Classification of Research on the Basis of Inquiry Mode
Structured Approach
1. The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
2. Everything that forms the research process, such as objectives, design, sample, and
the questions that a researcher plans to ask of respondents, is predetermined.
Unstructured Approach
1. The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
2. It allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
Quantitative Research
It is similar to deductive research. It is also termed as linear research as it typically follows a
linear path.
1. Stating with testable hypotheses
2. Collection of data
3. Analyzing the data
4. Accepting or rejecting the hypotheses.
Qualitative Research
This is basically an approach and not just a method to conduct research.
Wright describes qualitative research to mean any research were number counting and
statistical techniques are not the central issues, where an attempt is made to get close to the
collection of data in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is basically inductive or spiral in nature and has a very different
structure. The nature and has a very different structure. The researcher starts with a tentative
idea or question; these questions become more specific with progress in research.
The important methods for data collection in qualitative research are as follows:
In this method, a researcher brings together a small number of subjects to discuss the
topic of interest. The group size is kept deliberately small so that the members express
themselves more openly and also get more time as well.
Direct observation:
In-depth interviews: It is unstructured and has face-to-face interviews.
Diary method
Role play and simulation
Case study
Approaches in qualitative research
1. Narrative research
2. Ethnography.
